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Iconoclasm

215 reference entries captured from the article’s notes and bibliography.

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  1. 1. ↑From Ancient Greek: εἰκών + κλάω, romanized:_\_eikṓn + kláō\__, lit.'image-breaking'. _Iconoclasm_ may also be considered as a back-formation from _iconoclast_ (Greek: εἰκοκλάστης). The corresponding Greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία (_eikonoklasia_).

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  2. 1. ↑Stark, Rodney (2007). _The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success_. Random House Publishing Group. p.176. ISBN978-1588365002. The Beeldenstorm, or Iconoclastic Fury, involved roving bands of radical Calvinists who were utterly opposed to all religious images and decorations in churches and who acted on their beliefs by storming into Catholic churches and destroying all artwork and finery.

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  3. 2. ↑Byfield, Ted (2002). _A Century of Giants, A.D. 1500 to 1600: In an Age of Spiritual Genius, Western Christendom Shatters_. Christian History Project. p.297. ISBN978-0968987391. Devoutly Catholic but opposed to Inquisition tactics, they backed William of Orange in subduing the Calvinist uprising of the Dutch beeldenstorm on behalf of regent Margaret of Parma, and had come willingly to the council at her invitation.

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  4. 3. ↑"Iconoclast, 2", _Oxford English Dictionary_; see also "Iconoclasm" and "Iconoclastic".

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  5. 4. ↑"icono-, comb. form". _OED Online_. Oxford University Press. Retrieved March 28, 2019.

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  6. 5. 1Crone, Patricia. 2005. "Islam, Judeo-Christianity and Byzantine Iconoclasm". Archived 2018-11-11 at the Wayback Machine. pp. 59–96 in _From Kavād to al-Ghazālī: Religion, Law and Political Thought in the Near East, c. 600–1100_, (_Variorum_). Ashgate Publishing.

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  7. 6. ↑H. James Birx, _Encyclopedia of Anthropology, Vol. 1_, Sage Publications, US, 2006, p. 802

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  8. 7. ↑". Encyclopedia of World Biography. 20 June 2020. via _Encyclopedia.com_.

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  9. 8. ↑Assmann, Jan. 2014. _From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change_. American University in Cairo Press, ISBN977-416-631-0. p. 76.

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  10. 9. ↑_Bible_, Numbers 33:52 and similarly _Bible_, Deuteronomy 7:5

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  11. 10. ↑"2 Kings 21 / Hebrew–English Bible / Mechon-Mamre". _mechon-mamre.org_. Retrieved 2022-02-21.

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  12. 11. 1Parsons, Mikeal C.; Jensen, Robin M. (15 January 2024). _Early Christians and Their Art_. SBL Press. pp.28–29. ISBN978-1-62837-359-2.

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  13. 12. ↑Cooper, Jordan B. (10 May 2018). "Why Do You Use Icons and other Images in Worship?". _YouTube_. Retrieved 6 August 2026.

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  14. 13. ↑_Elvira canons_, Cua, archived from the original on 2012-07-16, Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur.

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  15. 14. ↑_The Catholic Encyclopedia_, This canon has often been urged against the veneration of images as practised in the Catholic Church. Binterim, De Rossi, and Hefele interpret this prohibition as directed against the use of images in overground churches only, lest the pagans should caricature sacred scenes and ideas; Von Funk, Termel, and Henri Leclercq opine that the council did not pronounce as to the liceity or non-liceity of the use of images, but as an administrative measure simply forbade them, lest new and weak converts from paganism should incur thereby any danger of relapse into idolatry, or be scandalized by certain superstitious excesses in no way approved by the ecclesiastical authority.

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  16. 15. ↑Grigg, Robert (1976-12-01). "Aniconic Worship and the Apologetic Tradition: A Note on Canon 36 of the Council of Elvira". _Church History_. **45** (4): 428–433. doi:10.2307/3164346. ISSN0009-6407. JSTOR3164346. S2CID162369274.

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  17. 16. ↑"The Council of Elvira, ca. 306". Archived from the original on 2016-02-29. Retrieved 2023-04-17.

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  18. 17. ↑Dimmick, Jeremy; Simpson, James; Zeeman, Nicolette (2002). _Images, Idolatry, and Iconoclasm in Late Medieval England: Textuality and the Visual Image_. OUP Oxford. ISBN978-0-19-154196-4.

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  19. 18. 1Jensen, Robin Margaret (2013). _Understanding Early Christian Art_. Routledge. ISBN978-1-135-95170-2.

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  20. 19. 1Strezova, Anita (2013-11-25). "Overview on Iconophile and Iconoclastic Attitudes toward Images in Early Christianity and Late Antiquity". _Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies_.

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  21. 20. ↑O'Gorman, Ned (2016). _The Iconoclastic Imagination: Image, Catastrophe, and Economy in America from the Kennedy Assassination to September 11_. University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-31023-7.

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  22. 21. ↑Humphreys, Mike (2021). _A Companion to Byzantine Iconoclasm_. Brill. ISBN978-90-04-46200-7.

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  23. 22. ↑Kitzinger, 92–93, 92 quoted

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  24. 23. ↑"Byzantine iconoclasm". Retrieved 2013-04-30.

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  25. 24. ↑Cormack, Robin. 1985. _Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons_. London: George Philip. ISBN0-540-01085-5.

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  26. 25. ↑Mango, Cyril. 1977. "Historical Introduction". pp. 2–3 in _Iconoclasm_, edited by Bryer & Herrin. Birmingham: Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham. ISBN0-7044-0226-2.

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  27. 26. ↑Treadgold, Warren. 1997. _A History of the Byzantine State and Society_. Stanford University Press. pp. 350, 352–353.

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  28. 27. 1Mango, Cyril. 2002. _The Oxford History of Byzantium_. Oxford University Press.

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  29. 28. ↑Kim, Elijah Jong Fil (2012). _The Rise of the Global South: The Decline of Western Christendom and the Rise of Majority World Christianity_. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN978-1-61097-970-2.

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  30. 29. ↑Michalski, Sergiusz (2013). _Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe_. Routledge. ISBN978-1-134-92102-7.

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  31. 30. 1F. L. Cross; E. A. Livingstone, eds. (1997). _The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church_ (3rd ed.). US: Oxford University Press. p.359. ISBN0-19-211655-X.

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  32. 31. ↑Lindberg, Carter (2021). _The European reformations_ (3rd ed.). Chichester, United Kingdom Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp.84–91. ISBN978-1-119-64081-3.

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  33. 32. ↑Dorner, Isaak August. 1871. _History of Protestant Theology_. Edinburgh. p. 146.

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  34. 33. 1Lamport, Mark A. (2017). _Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation_. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p.138. ISBN978-1442271593. Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came

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  35. 34. 1Félix, Steven (2015). _Pentecostal Aesthetics: Theological Reflections in a Pentecostal Philosophy of Art and Esthetics_. Brill Academic Publishers. p.22. ISBN978-9004291621. Luther's view was that biblical images could be used as teaching aids, and thus had didactic value. Hence Luther stood against the destruction of images whereas several other reformers (Karlstadt, Zwingli, Calvin) promoted these actions. In the following passage, Luther harshly rebukes Karlstadt on his stance on iconoclasm and his disorderly conduct in reform.

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  36. 35. ↑Wallace, Peter George. 2004. _The Long European Reformation: Religion, Political Conflict, and the Search for Conformity, 1350–1750_. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. p.95.

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  37. 36. ↑Kamil, Neil (2005). _Neil Kamil,_ Fortress of the soul: violence, metaphysics, and material life _, p. 148_. JHU Press. ISBN978-0801873904. Retrieved 2013-04-30.

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  38. 37. ↑Wandel, Lee Palmer (1995). _Voracious Idols and Violent Hands_. Cambridge, UK: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp.149. ISBN978-0-521-47222-7.

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  39. 38. ↑Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). _The Reformation_. Oxford University Press. p.114. ISBN978-0191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common cause.

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  40. 39. ↑Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). _Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art_. Cengage Learning. p.254. ISBN978-1424069224. In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the Netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived as idolatrous.

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  41. 40. ↑Aston, Margaret (1993), _The King's Bedpost: Reformation and Iconography in a Tudor Group Portrait_, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-48457-2.

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  42. 41. ↑Loach, Jennifer (1999), Bernard, George; Williams, Penry (eds.), _Edward VI_, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, p.187, ISBN978-0-300-07992-0

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  43. 42. ↑Hearn, Karen (1995), _Dynasties: Painting in Tudor and Jacobean England 1530–1630_, New York: Rizzoli, pp.75–76, ISBN978-0-8478-1940-9

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  44. 43. ↑Heal, Felicity (2005), _Reformation in Britain and Ireland_, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-928015-5 (pp. 263–264)

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  45. 44. ↑Evelyn White, Parliamentary Visitor (1886). "The Journal of William Dowsing, Parliamentary Visitor". _Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History_. **VI** (Part 2): 236 to 295.

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  46. 45. ↑Naaeke, Anthony Y. (2006). _Kaleidoscope Catechesis: Missionary Catechesis in Africa, Particularly in the Diocese of Wa in Ghana_. Peter Lang. p.114. ISBN978-0820486857. Although some reformers, such as John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli, rejected all images, Martin Luther defended the importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion.

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  47. 46. ↑Noble, Bonnie (2009). _Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation_. University Press of America. pp.67–69. ISBN978-0761843375.

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  48. 47. 1Spicer, Andrew (2016). _Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe_. Taylor & Francis. p.237. ISBN978-1351921169. As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph pained in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).

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  49. 48. ↑Dixon, C. Scott (2012). _Contesting the Reformation_. John Wiley & Sons. p.146. ISBN978-1118272305. According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.

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  50. 49. ↑Ohl, Jeremiah F. 1906. "Art in Worship". pp. 83–99 in _Memoirs of the Lutheran Liturgical Association_ 2. Pittsburgh: Lutheran Liturgical Association.

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  51. 50. ↑İnalcık, Halil (1974). "The Turkish Impact on the Development of Modern Europe". In Karpat, K. H. (ed.). _The Ottoman State and Its Place in World History: Introduction_. Armenian Research Center collection. Leiden: Brill. p.53. ISBN978-90-04-03945-2.

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  52. 51. ↑Miller, Roland E. (2006). _Muslims and the Gospel: Bridging the Gap: a Reflection on Christian Sharing_. Kirk House Publishers. ISBN978-1932688078.

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  53. 52. ↑_Art after iconoclasm: painting in the Netherlands between 1566 and 1585_. Turnhout: Brepols. 2012. ISBN978-2-503-54596-7.

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  54. 53. ↑Strathern, Alan (2020). "The Many Meanings of Iconoclasm: Warrior and Christian Temple-Shrine Destruction in Late Sixteenth Century Japan". _Journal of Early Modern History_. **25** (3): 163–193. doi:10.1163/15700658-bja10023. ISSN1385-3783. S2CID229468278.

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  55. 54. ↑Fischer, Steven Roger (2006). _Island at the end of the world: The turbulent history of Easter Island_. London: Reaktion. p.64. ISBN1-86189-282-9. OCLC646808462.

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  56. 55. ↑Wellington, Victoria University of (April 4, 2014). "New view of Polynesian conversion to Christianity". _Victoria University of Wellington_.

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  57. 56. ↑Chessman, Stuart. "Hetzendorf and the Iconoclasm in the Second Half of the 20th Century". The Society of St. Hugh of Cluny. Retrieved 2013-04-30.

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  58. 57. 1Flood, Finbarr Barry (2002). "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum". _The Art Bulletin_. **84** (4): 641–659. doi:10.2307/3177288. JSTOR3177288.

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  59. 58. ↑Guillaume, Alfred (1955). _The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah"_. Oxford University Press. p.552. ISBN978-0-19-636033-1. Retrieved 2011-12-08. Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!).... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.

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  60. 59. ↑Grabar, André (1984) 1957. _L'iconoclasme byzantin: le dossier archéologique__Byzantine iconoclasm: The archaeological record_. Champs (in French). Flammarion. pp.155–156. ISBN978-2-08-012603-0.

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  61. 60. ↑King, G. R. D. (1985). "Islam, iconoclasm, and the declaration of doctrine". _Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies_. **48** (2): 276–277. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00033346. S2CID162882785.

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  62. 61. ↑"What happened to the Sphinx's nose?". _Smithsonian Journeys_. Smithsonian Institution. December 8, 2009.

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  63. 62. ↑Zivie-Coche, Christiane (2004). _Sphinx: history of a monument_. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN978-0801489549– via Internet Archive.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)

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  64. 63. ↑Howden, Daniel (August 6, 2005). "Independent Newspaper on-line, London, Jan 19, 2007". News.independent.co.uk. Archived from the original on September 8, 2008. Retrieved April 30, 2013.

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  65. 64. ↑Ahmed, Irfan (2006). "The Destruction of Holy Sites in Mecca and Medina". _Islamica Magazine_. No.15. Archived from the original on 5 February 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2020.

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  66. 65. ↑"Afghan Taliban leader orders destruction of ancient statues". Rawa.org. Retrieved 2013-04-30.

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  67. 66. ↑Tharoor, Ishaan (2012-07-02). "Timbuktu's Destruction: Why Islamists Are Wrecking Mali's Cultural Heritage". _Time_. Retrieved 10 July 2012.

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  68. 67. ↑"Nine Years for the Cultural Destruction of Timbuktu". _The Atlantic_. 2016-09-27. Retrieved 21 October 2017.

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  69. 68. ↑"Iraq jihadists blow up 'Jonah's tomb' in Mosul". _The Telegraph_. Agence France-Presse. 25 July 2014. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 25 July 2014.

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  70. 69. ↑"ISIS destroys Prophet Sheth shrine in Mosul". Al Arabiya News. 26 July 2014. Archived from the original on 16 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.

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  71. 70. ↑Eaton, Richard M. (9 December 2000). "Temple desecration in pre-modern India". _Frontline_. Vol.17, no.25. In 642 A.D. (pp.65–66). Archived from the original on 11 December 2013.

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  72. 71. ↑Eaton, Richard M. (2004). _Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India_. Gurgaon: Hope India Publications. pp.31–49. ISBN978-8178710273. For, while it is true that contemporary Persian sources routinely condemned idolatry (but-parasti) on religious grounds, it is also true that attacks on images patronized by enemy kings had been, from about the sixth century AD on, thoroughly integrated into Indian political behavior.Cite error: Unknown parameter " (see the help page).

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  73. 72. ↑Alam, Jayanti (2004). "'Bigots' and 'Fanatics'". _Economic and Political Weekly_. **39** (14/15): 1463–1464. ISSN0012-9976. JSTOR4414860.

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  74. 73. ↑Jan, Changez (2022-07-18). _Forgotten Kings: The Story of the Hindu Sahi Dynasty_. Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-93-92099-01-4. But the Huns had caused irreparable damage, Mihirakula is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a 'terrible persecutor of their religion' in Gandhara. During his reign, over 1,000 Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art, became extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited India in 630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins as Mihirakula had ordered their destruction.

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  75. 74. ↑Hossain, Ashik (29 October 2018). "Ancient Hindu temple found built on Buddhist shrine in Bangladesh's Dinajpur". _bdnews24.com_. Retrieved 2025-05-23.

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  76. 75. ↑"Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states". _Franpritchett.com_. Retrieved 2026-07-11.

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  77. 76. ↑"Temple desecration in pre-modern India". _Frontline_. 2021-06-03. Retrieved 2026-07-09.

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  78. 77. ↑Ashraf, Ajaz (2015-11-20). "'We will never know the number of temples desecrated through India's history': Richard Eaton". _Scroll.in_. Retrieved 2026-07-09.

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  79. 78. ↑Roy, Babul (June 2023). "Temple Desecration in Pre-modern India and Indo-Muslim States: A Discussion Beyond Historiography". _Indian Historical Review_. **50** (1): 159–192. doi:10.1177/03769836231174662. ISSN0376-9836.

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  80. 79. ↑Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2004). _Temple Desecration and Muslim States in Medieval India_. Hope India Publications. pp.35–37. ISBN978-81-7871-027-3.

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  81. 80. ↑Chaube, J. (1975). _History of Gujarat Kingdom, 1458-1537_. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p.134. ISBN978-0-88386-573-6.

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  82. 81. ↑Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg: The Chachnamah, An Ancient History of Sind, Giving the Hindu period down to the Arab Conquest. 2017-10-19 at the Wayback Machine

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  83. 82. ↑_Sindhi Culture_ by U.T. Thakkur, Univ. of Bombay Publications, 1959. _ISBN missing__page needed_

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  84. 83. ↑Eaton, Richard M. (5 January 2001). "Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states". _Frontline_. Vol.17, no.26. p.73 – via Columbia University, item 16 of the Table. Issue 26 online.

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  85. 84. ↑Gopal, Ram (1994). _Hindu culture during and after Muslim rule: survival and subsequent challenges_. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p.148. ISBN81-85880-26-3.

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  86. 85. ↑Jaffrelot, Christophe (1996). _The Hindu nationalist movement and Indian politics: 1925 to the 1990s_. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p.84. ISBN1-85065-170-1.

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  87. 86. 1Eaton, Richard M. (1 September 2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States". _Journal of Islamic Studies_. **11** (3). Oxford University Press: 283–319. doi:10.1093/jis/11.3.283. ISSN0955-2340.

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  88. 87. ↑Bradnock, Robert; Bradnock, Roma (2000). _India Handbook_. McGraw-Hill. p.959. ISBN978-0-658-01151-1.

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  89. 88. 1"Leaves from the past". Archived from the original on 2007-01-10.

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  90. 89. 1"Gujarat State Portal | All About Gujarat | Gujarat Tourism | Religious Places | Somnath Temple". Gujaratindia.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-28. Retrieved 2013-04-30.

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  91. 90. ↑Saunders, Kenneth (1934). _A Pageant of India_. H.Milford, Oxford University Press. p.162.

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  92. 91. ↑Kakar, Sudhir (1996). _The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict_. University of Chicago Press. p.50. ISBN0-226-42284-4.

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  93. 92. ↑Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai "Hindustan Islami Ahad Mein" (Hindustan under Islamic rule), Eng Trans by Maulana Abdul Hasan Nadwi.

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  94. 93. ↑, Columbia.edu.

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  95. 94. ↑Elliot, Henry Miers (1953). _The History of India: as told by its own historians; the Muhammadan period (Excerpt from Jamiu'l-Hikayat)_. University of Michigan.

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  96. 95. 1The South Asian_Aurangzeb profile_.

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  97. 96. 1Rajiv Varma_Destruction of Hindu Temples_ by Aurangzeb.

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  98. 97. ↑Kareem, C.K. (1973) 1973. _Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan P187_. Kerala History Association: distributors, Paico Pub. House. p.322.

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  99. 98. ↑"Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.

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  100. 99. ↑Welch, Anthony, and Howard Crane. 1983. "The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate". _Muqarnas_ 1:123–166. JSTOR1523075: The Quwwatu'l-Islam was built with the remains of demolished Hindu and Jain temples.

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  101. 100. ↑Pritchett, Frances W. "Indian routes: Some memorable ventures, adventures, and other happenings, in and about south Asia: 1200–1299". Columbia University.

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  102. 101. ↑Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd Edition, Routledge, 1998, ISBN0-415-15482-0, pp. 160–161

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  205. * Calisi, Antonio. 2017. _I Difensori Dell'icona: La Partecipazione Dei Vescovi Dell'Italia Meridionale Al Concilio Di Nicea II_ 787. CreateSpace. ISBN978-1978401099.

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