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Nalanda mahavihara

241 reference entries captured from the article’s notes and bibliography.

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These entries include all references extracted from this article, including works about architecture, origins and other subjects. They do not all support destruction claims. Bibliographic capture does not mean that the original work was read. Some references cite another bibliography entry rather than a URL.

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  1. 1. ↑The Nalanda site is not fully excavated, and the modern village of Bargaon may be on top of some of the ruins. (ASI reports, 1935–1937)

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  2. 2. ↑Variants of similar fictional accounts about Nalanda before the 4th century are found in several Tibetan works and Chinese pilgrim accounts. There are fictional stories in Tibetan texts for post-12th-century era too, with names of ahistorical and unverifiable "kings", "sages", "arsonists", "thousands of new Buddhist monasteries and temples" and "Muslim robbers murdering a king". For example, the Taranatha account (_c._ 1600 CE) in Chapters 19 and 20, describes the tale of Muditabhabhadra, Malikabuddhi and Kakutsiddha. It states that, after a Persian king from Kashmir and his Muslim army destroyed Magadha and "heavily damaged Sri Nalendra Nalanda", one king named Krisnaraja built twenty one centres of Buddhist doctrine in _madhya-desha_ (central India) with one thousand _caityas_ containing images of (Buddhist) deities, but Muslim robbers murdered him and his "blood flowed in the form

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  3. 3. ↑Nalanda's library with palm-leaf manuscripts did have incidences of fire damage in its history. A 10th-century stone inscription notes a destruction by fire and subsequent restoration at the Mahavihara during the reign of Mahipala (r.988–1038).120

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  4. 1. 1Hartmut Scharfe (12 November 2018). _Education in Ancient India_. BRILL. pp.148–150. ISBN978-90-474-0147-6.

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  5. 2. 1Jose Ignacio Cabezon; José Ignacio Cabezón (31 January 2013). _The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings_. OUP USA. p.87. ISBN978-0-19-995862-7.

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  6. 3. ↑Buswell Jr., Robert (2013). "Nālanda". _Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism_: 565. ISBN978-0-691-15786-3.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)

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  7. 4. 1Truschke, Audrey (May 2018). "The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism". _History of Religions_. **57** (4): 406–435. doi:10.1086/696567. ISSN0018-2710. S2CID165825418.

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  8. 5. ↑Sen, Amartya (17 November 2021). "Nalanda and the pursuit of science". _The Hindu_. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024.

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  9. 6. 1. Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 18 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.

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  10. 7. 1Le 2010, p.59.

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  11. 8. ↑"Alphabetical List of Monuments – Bihar". Archaeological Survey of India. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2014.

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  12. 9. ↑Asher 2015, pp.1–5.

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  13. 10. ↑Kumar (2018).

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  14. 11. 1"History | District Nalanda, Government of Bihar | India". _nalanda.nic.in_. 15 June 2023. Retrieved 2 June 2023.

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  15. 12. ↑Cochrane, Steve (2009). "Asian Centres of Learning and Witness before 1000 CE.: Insights for Today". _Transformations_. **26** (1). Sage Publications: 30–39. doi:10.1177/0265378809102174. JSTOR43052754.

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  16. 13. ↑Chandra Ray, Sunil (1954). "Proceedings of the Indian History Congress". Indian History Congress. pp.78–83. JSTOR45436328.

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  17. 14. ↑Sankalia, Hasmukh (1934). "The University of Nalanda". Central Archaeology Library, New Delhi: B.G. Paul & Co. Publishers.

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  18. 15. 1Pinkney 2014, pp.116–117 with footnotes.

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  19. 16. ↑Kumar, Manoj. "Ancient Nalanda University". Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2021.

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  20. 17. ↑Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1976). "Kālidāsa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age". _Journal of the American Oriental Society_. **96** (1): 15–26. doi:10.2307/599886. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR599886.

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  21. 18. ↑Bhattacharya, Debaditya (3 September 2018). _The Idea of the University: Histories and Contexts_. Taylor & Francis. ISBN978-0-429-81428-0. However, the impunity of populist narratives around the birth of the university-idea in Takshashila or Nalanda does beg a challenge on historical grounds. Though archaeological records and epigraphic-numismatic evidence have, beyond a doubt, proved the acclaim that both these places (as also Vallabhi, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Jagaddala) enjoyed as centres of intellectual instruction, there may be precise historical arguments against discerning in them the early lineaments of a modern 'university

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  22. 19. ↑Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (4 October 2016). _The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities_. Taylor & Francis. p.46. ISBN978-1-317-54327-5. Obviously, these Pala foundations cannot be thought of as a 'federal university' as modern institutions are, such as the American state universities or the University of Wales in Britain. These share a name and an academic office which oversees teaching and the award of qualifications." "The institutions we have mentioned so far are among the best known and best documented, but were far from unique.

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  23. 20. ↑Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (17 June 2019). _The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education_. Oxford University Press. p.304. ISBN978-0-19-934004-0. Asia's first modern universities were only founded much later, beginning in the sixteenth century, and often infused with significant elements drawn from the West,

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  24. 21. ↑Smith 2013, pp.111–112.

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  25. 22. ↑Krishnan 2016, p.17.

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  26. 23. ↑Scharfe 2002, pp.148–150 with footnotes.

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  27. 24. 1Auer, Blain (2019). _Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia_. De Gruyter. p.68. ISBN978-3-11-063168-5.

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  28. 25. ↑"Nalanda: The university that changed the world". _www.bbc.com_. 23 February 2023. Retrieved 13 April 2025.

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  29. 26. ↑Sen, Amartya (17 November 2021). "Nalanda and the pursuit of science". _The Hindu_. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024.

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  30. 27. ↑"ANCIENT NALANDA UNIVERSIty's RUINS | District Nalanda, Government of Bihar | India".

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  31. 28. ↑Dalrymple, William (2024). _The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World_. Bloomsbury. p.116. ISBN9781408864418.

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  32. 29. 1Wayman 1984, p.43.

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  33. 30. 1Niraj Kumar; George van Driem; Phunchok Stobdan (18 November 2020). _Himalayan Bridge_. KW. pp.253–255. ISBN978-1-000-21549-6.

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  34. 31. 1Stephen Hodge (9 December 2005). _The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary_. Routledge. p.17. ISBN978-1-135-79654-9.

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  35. 32. 1Collins 2000, p.240.

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  36. 33. 1Joshi 1977, p.177.

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  37. 34. 1Buswell & Lopez 2013, Entry for _Nālandā_.

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  38. 35. ↑Kumar, Pintu (2011). "The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education". _The Journal of the World Universities Forum_. **4** (1): 65–80. doi:10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v04i01/56731. ISSN1835-2030.

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  39. 36. ↑Sumersingh, DhirajsinghRajput; Gokarn, Rohit; Jagtap, ChandrashekharY; Galib, R; Patgiri, Bj; Prajapati, Pk (2016). "Critical Review of Rasaratna Samuccaya: A Comprehensive Treatise of Indian Alchemy". _Ancient Science of Life_. **36** (1): 12–18. doi:10.4103/0257-7941.195412. ISSN0257-7941. PMC5255965. PMID28182027.

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  40. 37. ↑Buswell & Lopez 2013, Entry for _Nālandā_, _Xuanzang_ and _Yijing_.

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  41. 38. ↑Śāntideva (1998). _Translator's Note: The Bodhicaryāvatāra_. Oxford University Press. p.xxviii. ISBN978-0-19-283720-2.

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  42. 39. ↑Hodge, Stephen (9 December 2005). _The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary_. Routledge. p.17. ISBN978-1-135-79654-9.

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  43. 40. ↑Lal Mani Joshi (1977). _Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D._ Motilal Banarsidass. pp.146–147. ISBN978-81-208-0281-0.

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  44. 41. ↑"Four sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List". _whc.unesco.org_. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 15 July 2016. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2016.

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  45. 42. ↑"History and Revival". _Nalanda University_.

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  46. 43. ↑. _Nalandauniv.edu.in_. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

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  47. 44. ↑Ghosh 1965, pp.1–2.

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  48. 45. ↑Prasad 1988, p.184 with footnotes.

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  49. 46. ↑Ghosh 1965, pp.3 with footnote 2.

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  50. 47. ↑Hiranand Sastri 1986, pp.3–4.

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  51. 48. 1Ghosh 1965, pp.2–3.

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  52. 49. ↑Tewari, Rakesh (2016). _EXCAVATION AT JUAFARDIH, DISTRICT NALANDA_. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. pp.6–8 Layers 13, the uppermost deposit of Period I, has provided a C14 date of 1354BCE it may thus be seen that the C14 dates of Period I and II are consistent and justifiably indicate that the conventional date bracket for NBPW requires a fresh review at least for the sites in Magadha region.

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  53. 50. ↑KA Nilakanta Sastri 1988, p.268.

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  54. 51. 1Scharfe 2002, p.148.

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  55. 52. ↑Dutt 1962, p.328.

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  56. 53. ↑Ghosh 1965, pp.4–5.

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  57. 54. 1Scharfe 2002, pp.148–149 with footnotes.

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  58. 55. ↑_The Return of the Buddha - Ancient Symbols for a New Nation_. 2014. p.239. The claims for the historicity of Nalanda are based on literary and epigraphical sources, which identify it as the birth-place of Buddha's disciple Säriputta. Ashoka is said to have built a temple in the third century BCE and the site owes its popularity as a university to the archaeologist Hasmukh D. Sankalia.

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  59. 56. ↑Deeg, Max (2019), "Chinese Buddhist Travelers: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing", _Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History_, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.217, ISBN978-0-19-027772-7

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  60. 57. 1Monroe 2000, p.166.

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  61. 58. 1Dutt 1962, p.329.

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  62. 59. 1Frazier, Jessica; Flood, Gavin (30 June 2011). _The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies_. A&C Black. p.34. ISBN978-0-8264-9966-0.

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  63. 60. ↑Vasbinder, Jan Wouter; Sim, Jonathan Y. H. (22 November 2022). _Fit For Purpose? The Futures Of Universities_. World Scientific. p.62. ISBN978-981-12-6895-3.

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  64. 61. ↑John F Fleet, Nalanda clay seals of Kumaragupta III, _Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum_ Vol.3

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  65. 62. ↑Pinkney 2014, pp.116 with footnotes

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  66. 63. 1Ghosh 1965, p.5.

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  67. 64. ↑Krishnan 2016, pp.162–163.

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  68. 65. ↑Dutt 1962, p.330.

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  69. 66. ↑Pal 2019, pp.95–99.

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  70. 67. ↑Scharfe 2002, pp.149–150 with footnotes.

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  71. 68. ↑Elverskog, Johan (2010). _Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road_. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p.1.

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  72. 69. ↑Sastri, Hirananda (1931). _Epigraphia Indica Vol.21_. pp.74–80.

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  73. 70. ↑Li Rongxi (1996), _The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions_, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 123–132

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  74. 71. ↑Ghosh 1965, p.6.

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  75. 72. ↑Asher, Frederick (1980). _The Art of Eastern India: 300 - 800_. University of Minnesota Press. p.55. ISBN978-1-4529-1225-7.

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  76. 73. 1Scharfe 2002, p.151.

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  77. 74. ↑Asher 2015, pp.5–21.

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  78. 75. ↑Scharfe 2002, pp.151–152.

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  79. 76. 1Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p.110.

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  80. 77. ↑Wriggins 1996, p.237.

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  81. 78. ↑Ghosh 1965, p.8.

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  82. 79. ↑Wriggins 1996, p.124.

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  83. 80. ↑Beal 2000, p.111.

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  84. 81. ↑Wriggins 1996, pp.177.

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  85. 82. ↑Ghosh 1965, p.9.

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  86. 83. ↑Scharfe 2002, p.144.

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  87. 84. ↑Buswell & Lopez 2013, Entry for _Nālandā_ and _Yijing_.

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  88. 85. ↑Monroe 2000, p.167.

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  89. 86. ↑J. Takakusu, _A Record of The Buddhist Religion by I-Tsing_, Oxford University Press, pp. 108–110

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  90. 87. ↑James Grayson (1980), _The role of early Korean Buddhism in the history of East Asia_, Asiatische Studien: Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, ETH Zürich and Kyemyong University Taegu, pp. 57–60

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  91. 88. ↑Lee, Kwangsu (1993). "Trade and Religious Contacts Between India and Korea in Ancient Times". _Proceedings of the Indian History Congress_. **54**: 701–706. JSTOR44143060.

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  92. 89. 1Dutt 1962, pp.342–343 with footnotes.

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  93. 90. ↑Dutt 1962, pp.350–351.

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  94. 91. ↑Jacob Kinnard (1996), _Reevaluating the Eighth-Ninth Century Pala Milieu: Icono-Conservatism and the Presence of Sakyamuni_, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 19, Number 2, pp. 281–283, for context and critical historiography see pp. 281–297

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  95. 92. ↑Dutt 1962, pp.349–352.

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  96. 93. ↑Dutt 1962, pp.344–346.

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  97. 94. ↑Ghosh 1965, p.10.

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  98. 95. ↑Ghosh 1965, pp.10, 54–55.

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  99. 96. ↑Scharfe 2002, p.152.

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  100. 97. ↑Wink 2002, p.268.

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  101. 98. 1Ghosh 1965, pp.12–13.

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  102. 99. ↑Gregory Schopen (1989), A Verse from the Bhadracarlpranidhdna in a 10th Century Inscription found at Nalanda, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 12, Number 1, pp. 149–150

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  103. 100. ↑Gregory Schopen (2017). "Chapter XIII. A Note On The "Technology Of Prayer" And A Reference To A "Revolving Bookcase" In An Eleventh-Century Indian Inscription". _Figments and Fragments of Mahayana Buddhism in India_. University of Hawaii Press. pp.345–349. doi:10.1515/9780824874629-015. ISBN978-0-8248-7462-9.

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  104. 101. ↑Krishnan 2016, pp.173–189.

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  105. 102. ↑Lammerts, D.C. (2015). _Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia_. Nalanda-Sriwijaya series. ISEAS Publishing, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp.298–299. ISBN978-981-4519-06-9.

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  106. 103. 1Singh, Anand (2013). "'Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis". _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka_. **58** (1): 23–49. JSTOR43854933.

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  107. 104. ↑Anupam, Hitendra (2002). "Significance of Tibetan Sources in the Study of Odantapuri and Vikramsila Mahavihars". _Proceedings of the Indian History Congress_. **61**: 424–428. JSTOR44148119.

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  108. 105. ↑Scharfe 2002, pp.154–155, 157.

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  109. 106. 1Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal (1959). _Biography of Dharmasvamin_. Translated by George Roerich. KPJ Research Institute. pp.ii–vi, xxxix–lxv, 90–97.

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  110. 107. ↑Scharfe 2002, p.150.

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  111. 108. ↑Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal (1959). _Biography of Dharmasvamin_. Translated by George Roerich. KPJ Research Institute. pp.xlii, 90–93.

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  112. 109. ↑Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal (1959). _Biography of Dharmasvamin_. Translated by George Roerich. KPJ Research Institute. pp.93–94.

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  113. 110. ↑Dutt 1962, p.347.

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  114. 111. ↑Chos-dar 1959, Introduction, p. XIX.

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  115. 112. ↑Nath Prasad, Birendra (2021). _A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra_. Routledge. pp.140–149. ISBN9781032117225.

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  116. 113. ↑A Truschke (2019). "The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism". In Blain Auer; Ingo Strauch (eds.). _Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia_. De Gruyter. pp.418, 420.

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  117. 114. ↑Singh, Anand (2013). "'Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis". _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka_. **58** (1): 23–49. JSTOR43854933.

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  118. 115. ↑Tamrakar, Dr Amit Kumar; Jadon, Jyoti (2022). "Library and education system in ancient Nalanda University". _International Journal of Advanced Academic Studies_. **4** (3): 130–134. doi:10.33545/27068919.2022.v4.i3b.839. ISSN2706-8927.

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  119. 116. ↑Dokras, Dr Uday (1 January 2022). "Past and Present of the Ancient University of Nalanda". _INAC_.

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  120. 117. ↑Dutt 1962, p.343.

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  121. 118. 1Ghosh 1965, p.15.

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  122. 119. ↑Tāranātha (Jo-nang-pa) (1990). _Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India_. Translated by Chattopadhyaya, Lama Chimpa alaka; Rinpochi, Lama S. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.137–143. ISBN978-81-208-0696-2.

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  123. 120. ↑Ghosh 1965, p.13.

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  124. 121. ↑Johan Elverskog, _Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road_, University of Pennsylvania Press (2011), pp. 1–3

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  125. 122. ↑_Opening the Treasure of the Profound: Teachings on the Songs of Jigten Sumgon and Milarepa_. Shambhala Publications. 8 October 2013. ISBN978-0-8348-2896-4. Retrieved 8 March 2022– via Google Books.

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  126. 123. ↑Kim 2013

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  127. 124. ↑"Buddhism and the Trade Routes". _Asiasocietymuseum.org_. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

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  128. 125. ↑. _The Treasury of Lives_. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

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  129. 126. ↑Matthew Kapstein (1990), Mahamudra: The Quintessence of Mind and Meditation Review, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 13, Number 1, pp. 105–106

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  130. 127. ↑Lama, Dalai; Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho, Dalai Lama XIV; Lhundrub, Khonton Peljor; Cabezón, José Ignacio; Cabezon, Jose Ignacio (17 May 2011). _Meditation on the Nature of Mind_. Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-86171-628-9. Retrieved 8 March 2022– via Google Books.

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  131. 128. ↑"The Seventeen Pandits of Nalanda Monastery". _FPMT_. Archived from the original on 20 November 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

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  132. 129. ↑"Michael Henss: TIBET – Monasteries Open Their Treasure Rooms". _Asianart.com_. Archived from the original on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

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  133. 130. 1Nath Prasad, Birendra (2021). _A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra_. Routledge. pp.140–149. ISBN978-1-032-11722-5.

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  134. 131. 1Mary Stewart (1988), _Nalanda Mahavihara: An Historiographic Study of Its Art and Archaeology, 1812–1938_, SOAS, University of London, pp. 120–177

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  135. 132. ↑"Getting to Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (NNM), Nalanda". Nava Nalanda Mahavihara. Archived from the original on 5 October 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2014.

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